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diff --git a/books/sociology/secrecy.md b/books/sociology/secrecy.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c1db217 --- /dev/null +++ b/books/sociology/secrecy.md @@ -0,0 +1,489 @@ +[[!meta title="The Sociology of Secrecy"]] + +## Excerpts + + [...] + + All relationships of people to each other rest, as a matter of + course, upon the precondition that they know something about + each other. The merchant knows that his correspondent wants + + [...] + + rough and ready way, to the degree necessary in order that the + needed kinds of intercourse may proceed. That we shall know + with whom we have to do, is the first precondition of having + anything to do with another. The customary reciprocal ptresenta- + + [...] + + reciprocally recognized. Their necessity is usually observed only + when they happen to be wanted. It would be a profitable + scientific labor to investigate the sort and degree of reciprocal + apprehension which is needed for the various relationships + between human beings. It would be worth while to know + how the general psychological presumptions with which each + approaches each are interwoven with the special experiences + with reference to the individual who is in juxtaposition with us; + how in many ranges of association the reciprocal apprehension + does or does not need to be equal, or may or may not be permitted + to be equal; how conventional relationships are determined in + their development only through that reciprocal or unilateral + knowledge developing with reference to the other party. The + investigation should finally proceed in the opposite direction; + + + [...] + + given by the total relationship of the knower to the known. + Since one never can absolutely know another, as this would mean + knowledge of every particular thought and feeling; since we + must rather form a conception of a personal unity out of the + fragments of another person in which alone he is accessible to + us, the unity so formed necessarily depends upon that portion of + the other which our standpoint toward him permits us to see. + + [...] + + on the other hand the actual reciprocity of the individuals is based + tupon the picture which they derive of each other. Here we have + one of the deep circuits of the intellectual life, inasmuch as one + element presupposes a second, but the second presupposes the + first. While this is a fallacy within narrow ranges, and thus + + [...] + + or by dissimulation he may deceive us as to the truth. No other + object of knowledge can thus of its own initiative, either + enlighten us with reference to itself or conceal itself, as a human + being can. No other knowable object modifies its conduct from + consideration of its being understood or misunderstood. 'Tlhis + + [...] + + in misconception about the true intention of the person who + tells the lie. Veracity and mendacity are thus of the most far- + reaching significance for the relations of persons with each + other. Sociological structures are most characteristically dif- + ferentiated by the measure of mendacity that is operative in + them. To begin with, in very simple relationships a lie is + much more harmless foir the persistence of the group than + in complex associations. Primitive man, living in communities + of restricted extent, providing for his needs by his own produc- + tion or by direct co-operation, limiting his spiritual interests to + personal experience or to simple tradition, surveys and controls + the material of his existence more easily and completely than the + man of higher culture. In the latter case life rests upon a thou- + sand presuppositions which the individual can never trace back + to their origins, and verify; but which he must accept upon faith + and belief. In a much wider degree than people are accustomed + the economic system + to realize, modern civilized life -from + which is constantly becoming more and more a credit-economy, + + [...] + + to the pursuit of science, in which the majority of investigators + must use countless results obtained by others, and not directly + subject to verification- depends upon faith in the honor of + others. We rest our most serious decisions upon a complicated + system of conceptions, the majority of which presuppose con- + fidence that we have nlot been deceived. Hence prevarication in + modern circumstances becomes something much more devasta- + ting, something placing the foundations of life much more in + jeopardy, than was earlier the case. If lying appeared today + among us as a sin as permissible as among the Greek divinities, + the Hebrew patriarchs, or the South Sea Islanders; if the + extremne severity of the moral law did not veto it, the progressive + upbuilding of modern life would be simply impossible, since + modern life is, in a much wider than the economic sense, a + "credit-economy." This relationship of the times recurs in the + case of differences of other dimensions. The farther third per- + sons are located from the center of our personality, the easier can + we adjust ourselves practically, but also subjectively, to their lack + of integrity. On the other hand, if the few persons in our imme- + dia<te environment lie to us, life becomes intolerable. This + + + [...] + + in the majority as compared with the liar who gets his advantage + from the lie. Consequently that enlightenment which aims at + elimination of the element of deception from social life is always + of a democratic character. + Human intercourse rests normally upon the condition that + + [...] + + development may gain vitality by alternate concession and resist- + ance. Relationships of an intimate character, the formal vehicle + of which is psycho-physical proximity, lose the charm, and even + the content, of their intimacy, unless the proximity includes, at + the same time and alternately, distance and intermission. Finally + -and + this is the matter with which we are now concerned -the + reciprocal knowledge, which is the positive condition of social + relationships, is not the sole condition. On the contrary, such as + those relationships are, they actually presuppose also a certain + + [...] + + By virtue of the situation just noticed, that antecedent or + consequent form of knowledge with reference to an individual- + viz., confidence in him, evidently one of the most important syn- + thetic forces within society -gains + a peculiar evolution. Confi- + dence, as the hypothesis of future conduct, which is sure enough + to become the basis of practical action, is, as hypothesis, a mediate + condition between knowing and not knowing another person. + The possession of full knowledge does away with the need o,f + trusting, while complete absence of knowledge makes trust evi- + dentlv impossible.' Whatever quantities of knowing and not + knowing must comnimingle, in order to make possible the detailed + practical decision based upon confidence, will be determined by + the historic epoch, the ranges of interests, and the individuals. + + [...] + + what is not forbidden is permitted, and, what is not permitted is + forbidden. Accordingly, the relationships of men are differen- + tiated by the question of knowledge with reference to each other: + what is not concealed may be known, and what is not revealed + may yet not be known. The last determination corresponds to the + otherwise effective consciousness that an ideal sphere surrounds + every human being, different in various directionsi and toward + different persons; a sphere varying in extent, into which one may + not venture to penetrate without disturbing the personal value of + the individual. Honor locates such an area. Language indi- + cates very nicely an invasion of this sort by such phrases as + "coming too near" (zu nahe treten). The radius of that sphere, + so to speak, marks the distance which a stranger may not cross + without infringing up,on another's honor. Another sphere of + like form corresponds to that which we designate as the "signifi- + cance" (Bedeutung) of another personality. Towards the + "significant" man there exists an inner compulsion to keep one's + + [...] + + signifies violation of the ego, at its center. Discretion is nothing + other than the sense of justice with respect to the sphere of the + intimate contents of life. Of co-urse, this sense is various in its + + + [...] + + voluntarily reveal to us-must + necessity. But in finer and less simple form, in fragmentary + passages of association and in unuttered revelations, all commerce + of men with each other rests upon the condition that each knows + something more of the other than the latter voluntarily reveals + to him; and in many respects this is of a sort the knowledge of + which, if possible, would have been prevented by the party so + revealed. While this, judged as an individual affair, may count + as indiscretion, although in the social sense it is necessary as a + + [...] + + voluntarily reveal to us-must + necessity. But in finer and less simple form, in fragmentary + passages of association and in unuttered revelations, all commerce + of men with each other rests upon the condition that each knows + something more of the other than the latter voluntarily reveals + to him; and in many respects this is of a sort the knowledge of + which, if possible, would have been prevented by the party so + revealed. While this, judged as an individual affair, may count + as indiscretion, although in the social sense it is necessary as a + condition for the existing closeness and vitality of the inter- + change, yet the legal boundary of this invasion upon the spiritual + private property of another is extremely difficult to draw. In + general, men credit themselves with the right to know everything + which, without application of external illegal means, through + purely psychological observation and reflection, it is possible to + ascertain. In point of fact, however, indiscretion exercised in + this way may be quite as violent, and morally quite as unjusti- + fiable, as listening at keyholes and prying into the letters of + + [...] + + strangers. To anyone with fine psychological perceptions, men + betray themselves and their inmost thoughts and characteristics + in countless fashions, not only in spite of efforts not to' do so, but + often for the very reason that they anxiously attempt to guard + themselves. The greedy spying upon every unguarded word; + the boring persistence of inquiry as to the meaning of every slight + action, or tone of voice; what may be inferred from. such and + such expressions; what the blush at the mention of a given name + may betray-all this does, not overstep the boundary o'f external + discretion; it is entirely the labor of one's own mind, and there- + fore apparently within the unquestionable rights of the agent. + This is all the more the case, since such misuse of psychological + superiority oiften occurs as a purely involuntary procedure. Very + often it is impossible for us to, restrain our interpretation of + another, our theory of his subjective characteristics and inten- + tions. However positively an honorable person may forbid him- + + [...] + + so unavoidable, the division line between the permitted and the + non-permitted is the more indefinite. To what extent discretion + must restrain itself from mental handling " of all that which is its + own," to what extent the interests of intercourse, the reciprocal + interdependence of the members of the same group, limits this + duty of discretion - this is a question for the answer to, which + neither moral tact, nor survey of the o'bj ective relationships and + their demands, can alone be sufficient, since both factors must + rather always work together. The nicety and complexity of this + question throw it back in a much higher degree upon the respon- + sibility of the individual for decision, without final recourse to + any authoritative general norm, than is the case in connection + with a question of private property in the material sense. + In contrast with this preliminary form, or this attachment of + + [...] + + quently friendship, in which this intensity, but also this + inequality of devotion, is lacking, may more easily attach the + whole person to the whole person, may more easily break up + the reserves of the soul, not indeed by so impulsive a process, + but throoughout a wider area and during a longer succession. + This complete intimacy of confidence probably becomes, with + the changing differentiation of men, more and more difficult. + Perhaps the modern man has too much to conceal to make a + friendship in the ancient sense possible; perhaps personalities + also, except in very early years, are too peculiarly individualized + for the complete reciprocality of understanding, to which + always so much divination and productive phantasy are essen- + tial. It appears that, for this reason, the mo,dern type of + feeling inclines more to differentiated friendships; that is, to + those which have their territory only upon one side of the person- + ality at a time, and in which the rest of the personality plays no + part. Thus a quite special type of friendship emerges. For our + problem, namely, the degree of intrusion or of reserve within the + friendly relationship, this type is of the highest significance. + + [...] + + must come sooner or later. + In marriage, as in free relationships of analogous types, the + temptation is very natural to open oneself to the other at the + outset without limit; to abandon the last reserve of the soul + equally with those of the body, and thus to. lose oneself completely + in another. This, however, usually threatens the future of the + relationship. Only those people can without danger give them- + selves entirely to each other who canntot possibly give themselves + entirely, because the wealth of their soul rests in constant pro- + gressive development, which follows every devotion immediately + with the growth of new treasures. Complete devotion is safe + only in the case of those people who, have an inexhaustible fund + of latent spiritual riches, and therefore can no more alienate them + in a single confidence than a tree can give up the fruits of next + year by letting go what it produces at the present moment. The + case is quite different, however, with those people who, so to + speak, draw from their capital all their betrayals of feeling and + + [...] + + intensity so soon as it is confronted by a purpose of discovery. + Thereupon follows that purposeful concealment, that aggressive + defense, so to speak, against the other party, which we call + secrecy in the most real sense. Secrecy in this sense- i. e., whichi + is effective through negative or positive means of concealment + is one of the greatest accomplishments of humanity. In contrast + with the juvenile condition in which every mental picture is at + + [...] + + by the fact that what was formerly putblic passes under the pro- + tection of secrecy, and that, on the contrary, what was formerly + secret ceases to require such protection and proclaims itself. This + is analogous with that other evolution o,f mind in which move- + ments at first executed consciously become unconsciously me- + chanical, and, on the other hand, what was unconscious and + instinctive rises into the light of consciousness. + How this + development is distributed over the various formations of private + + [...] + + essential and significant. The natural impulse to idealization, and + the natural timidity of men, operate to one and the samne end in + the presence of secrecy; viz., to heighten it by phantasy, and to + distinguish it by a degree of attention that published reality could + not command. + Singularly enough, these attractions of secrecy enter into + + [...] + + not command. + Singularly enough, these attractions of secrecy enter into + combination with those of its logical opposite; viz., treason or + betrayal of secrets, which are evidently no less sociological in + their nature. Secrecy involves a tension which, at the moment of + revelation, finds its release. This constitutes the climax in the + development of the secret; in it the whole charm of secrecy con- + centrates and rises to its highest pitch - just as the moment of the + disappearance of an object brings out the feeling of its value in + the most intense degree. The sense of power connected with + possession of money is most comnpletely and greedily concentrated + for the soul of the spendthrift at the moment at which this power + slips from his hands. Secrecy also is sustained by the conscious- + + [...] + + 466 + THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY + ness that it might be exploited, and therefore confers power to + modify fo,rtunes, to produce surprises, joys, and calamities, even + if the latter be only misfortunes to ourselves. Hence the possi- + bility and the temptation of treachery plays around the secret, and + the external danger off being discovered is interwoven with the + internal danger of self-discovery, which has the fascination of the + brink o,f a precipice. Secrecy sets barriers between men, but at + the same time offers the seductive temptation to break through the + barriers by gossip or confession. This temptation accompanies + the psychical life of the secret like an overtone. Hence the socio- + logical significance of the secret, its practical measure, and the + mode o,f its workings must be found in the capacity or the inclina- + tion of the initiated to, keep the secret to' himself, or in his resist- + ance or weakness relative to the temptation to, betrayal. From the + play of these two interests, in concealment and in revelation, + spring shadings and fortunes of human reciprocities throughout + their whole range. If, according to our previous analysis, every + human relationship has, as one of its traits, the degree of secrecy + within or around it, it follows that the further development of the + relationship in this respect depends on the combining proportions + of the retentive and the communicative energies -the + former + sustained by the practical interest and the formal attractiveness + of secrecy as such, the latter by inability to, endture longer the + tension of reticence, and by the superiority which is latent, so to + speak, in secrecy, but which is actualized for the feelings only at + the moment o'f revelation, and o'ften also, on the other hand, by + the joy of confession, which may contain that s,ense o,f power in + negative and perverted form, as self-abasement and contrition. + All these factors, which determine the sociological role of + + + [...] + + too great temptation to disclose what might otherwise be hidden. + But in this case there is no need of secrecy in a high degree, + because this social formation usually tends to level its members, + and every peculiarity of being, acting, or possessing the persist- + ence of which requires secrecy is abhorrent to it. That all this + changes to its opposite in case of large widening of the circle is + a matter-of-course. In this connection, as in so many other par- + ticulars, the facts of monetary relationships reveal most distinctly + the specific traits of the large circle. Since transfers of economic + values have occurred principally by means of money, an otherwise + unattainable secrecy is possible in such transactions. Three pecu- + liarities of the money form of values are here important: first, + its compressibility, by virtue of which it is possible to, make a man + rich by slipping into his hand a check without attracting attention; + second, its abstractness and absence of qualitative character, in + consequence of which numberless sorts of acquisitions and trans- + fers of possessions may be covered up and guarded from publicity + in a fashion impossible so long as values could be possessed only + as extended, tangible objects; third, its long-distance effective- + ness, by virtue of which we may invest it in the most widely + removed and constantly changing values, and thus withdraw it + utterly from the view of our nearest neighbors. These facilities + of dissimulation which inhere in the degree of extension in the + use of money, and which disclose their dangers particularly in + dealings with foreign money, have called forth, as protective pro- + visions, publicity of the financial operations of corporations. + This points to a closer definition of the formula of evolution dis- + cussed above; viz., that throughout the form of secrecy there + occurs a permanent in- and out-flow of content, in which what is + originally open becomes secret, and what was originally concealed + throws off its mystery. Thus we might arrive at the paradoxical + idea that, under otherwise like circumstances, human associations + require a definite ratio of secrecy which merely changes its + + + [...] + + this exchange it keeps its quantum unvaried. We may even fill + out this general scheme somewhat more exactly. It appears that + with increasing telic characteristics of culture the affairs of + people at large become more and more public, those of individuals + more and more secret. In less developed conditions, as observed + above, the circumstances of individual persons cannot protect + themselves in the same degree from reciprocal prying and inter- + fering as within modern types of life, particularly those that have + developed in large cities, where we find a quite new degree of + reserve and discretion. On the other hand, the public function- + aries in undeveloped states envelop themselves in a mystical + authority, while in maturer and wider relations, through exten- + sion of the range of their prerogatives, through the objectivity of + their technique, through the distance that separates them from + most of the individuals, a security and a dignity accrue to them + which are compatible with publicity of their behavior. That + earlier secrecy of public functions, however, betrayed its essential + + [...] + + Footnote 2 This counter-movement occurs also in the reverse direction. + It has been + observed, in connection with the history of the English court, that the actual + court cabals, the secret whisperings, the organized intrigues, do not spring up + under despotism, but only after the king has constitutional advisers, when the + government is to that extent a system open to view. After that time- + and this + applies especially since Edward II-the + king begins to form an unofficial, and + at the same time subterranean, circle of advisers, in contrast with the ministers + somehow forced upon him. This body brings into existence, within itself, and + through endeavors to join it, a chain of concealments and conspiracies. + + + [...] + + have thought possible. Accordingly, politics, administration, + justice, have lost their secrecy and inaccessibility in precisely the + degree in which the individual has gained possibility of more com- + plete privacy, since modern- life has elaborated a technique for + isolation of the affairs of individuals, within the crowded condi- + tions of great cities, possible in former times only by means of + spatial separation. + + To what extent this development is to be regarded as advan- + tageous depends upon social standards of value. Democracies are + bound to regard publicity as the condition desirable in itself. + This follows from the fundamental idea that each should be + informed about all the relationships and occurrences with which + he is concerned, since this is a condition of his doing his part with + reference to them, and every community of knowledge contains + also the psychological stimulation to community of action. It is + immaterial whether this conclusion is entirely binding. If an + objective controlling structure has been built up, beyond the + individual interests, but nevertheless to their advantage, such + a structure may very well, by virtue of its formal inde- + pendence, have a rightful claim to carry on a certain amount + of secret functioning without prejudice to its public char- + acter, so far as real consideration of the interests of all is con- + cerned. A logical connection, therefore, which would necessitate + the judgment of superior worth in favor of the condition of pub- + licity, does not exist. On the other hand, the universal scheme of + cultural differentiation puts in an appearance here: that which + pertains to the public becomes more public, that which belongs to + the individual becomes more private. Moreover, this historical + development brings o-ut the deeper real significance: that which + in its nature is public, wvhich in its content concerns all, becomes + also externally, in its sociological form, more and more public; + while that which in its inmost nature refers to the self alone- + also, gain + that is, the centripetal affairs of the individual -must + in so-ciological position a more and more private character, a + more decisive possibility of remaining secret. + While secrecy, therefore, is a sociological ordination which + + + [...] + + As a general proposition, the secret society + emerges everywhere as correlate of despotism and of police con- + trol. It acts as protection alike of defense and of offense against + the violent pressure of central powers. This is true, not alone in + political relations, but in the same way within the church, the + school, and the family. |